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Introduction to Linguistics
Language and Linguistics
Language and Linguistics:
1. Definition Linguistics is a science which studies about language
Ilmu murni dalam Linguistik:
I. Phonology
a. Phonetics
b. Phonemics
II. Morphology
a. Morphs/Morpheme –> Morphemics
b. Words (Formation & Construction)
III. Syntax –> Sentence
IV. Semantics –> meaning(s)
2. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication’. Ronald Wardhaugh (1972:3)
Stated that based on the definition the key term in the above definition is ‘system’. Each language contains two systems: a system of sounds and a system of meaning.
Beside system, it is also said that language is ‘arbitrary’. It means that we cannot predict exactly which specific features we will find in a particular language if we are unfamiliar with that language or with a related language.
The term ‘vocal’ refers to the fact that the primary medium of language is sound, and it is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are the writing systems.
The term ‘symbol’ refers to the fact that there is no connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which those sounds refer.
Human language is related to the term ‘communication’. It means that language is used for communication. Kiat Boey Lim (1975:1) also agrees that language is used for communication, and it is made up of sounds. He also add another feature of human language: productive or creative: refers to the ability of native speakers to understand and produce any number of sentences (even though those which they have never heard before) in their mother tongue.
The other way to communicate is using gesture. The role of gesture is less obvious. Among the deaf, of course, it may replace speech as the principle form of communication; but for most people it is an important supplement to speech. The term gesture includes all human communication that involves waving of the hands, facial signals, grunts, and other vocalizations that do not make up words. The gesture is frequently called body language. Gesture could be various manipulations of the environment that have communicative intent such as smoke signals. Gesture was basic to the development of human communication and that it is still much used.
Language appears because of ??????
1. Social pressure theory (Adam Smith-1900)
2. Language appears because every items is sounded
3. Language appears because of heart pressure
4. Every human has feeling (Marks Muller)
Speech sounds are sounds which are produced by the human vocal organs of speech.
Elements of language:
1. sounds –> phonology
2. Grammar –> rules patterns –> morphology & syntax
3. Meaning –> vocabulary –> semantics
Characteristics of language:
1. sounds (vocal)
Language is sounds basically
2. arbitrary
The native speaker of the language agree to accept them (terms/symbols/meaning)
3. conventional/agreement
There is no reason, but agreement.
4. systematic
with limited (finite) rule can produce unlimited (infinite) number of sentences
ex. S + V + O + Adv
I saw him
He has bought a book
5. a system of systems
rule –> sounds
rule –> morphemes/words
rule –> phrases
rule –> clauses
rule –> sentences
rule –> paragraphs
rule –> …. (story)
ex. My twin beautiful sisters Elly and Emy work at the same office in the center of the city.
My beautiful and younger sister studies English in the USA.
6. creative/productive
– can express, everything
– can be used to express many ideas
– can say about future
– can tell something that doesn’t exist yet
– can produce unlimited sentences
7. a social phenomenon
8. meaningful
lexical, structural, cultural (overall)
9. habit/recursion
– daily use
– daily spoken
– trained
– drilled
10. Unique
11 social behaviour (social phenomenom)
language is used by society
12. relative (equally complex)
There are no languages which are better than others.
Each language is good for its own society (native speakers)
School of Linguistics
School of linguistics
A. Tradisional
Words are from Onomatopoetics: Tiruan Bunyi Alam
Word:
1. Root Creation
Direct sound Symbolism
· Call and Cry: Bahasa berasal dari teriakan
· Cratylus: /r/, /l/, /g/, /a/, /i, /o/, /n/, /m/ (Plato)
2. Root Modification
· Clipping and Shortening
Philosophy basic is to shortening (menyederhanakan)
a. Aphesis : loosing front syllable
Example : defend → fend
brandwine → wine
history → story
example → sample
b. Apocope : loosing front-end syllable, and middle syllable
Example : magister → master (mid)
market → tengah (mid)
Influenza → flu (front-end)
c. Syncope : loosing end syllable
Example : Photograph → Photo
· Blendings/ Blend
Philosophy basic is to two the opposite meaning and creates new meaning (between both)
Example:
1. Smoke (asap tipis) + Fog (asap tebal) = Smog (asap tidak tebal dan tidak tipis)
2. Breakfast (sarapan) + Lunch (makan siang) = Brunch (makan diantara sarapan dan makan siang)
· Acronym
Philosophy basic is to menyingkat kata
Example:
1. movies (movement pictures)
2. OK (All Correct: pronunciation)
3. Two Grammatical Process
1. Combine two words creates one meaning called by compound
2. Derivational:
Example: geography, geology (geo has not meaning)
B. Structural
Appears in 19th century by Ferdinand de Saussure (Swiss).
According to Saussure the truth is not always be the truth, it depends on the agreement of each communities
Language is as system of symbol.
Symbol consists of:
1. Signified / langue (kata/ucapan)
2. Signifier / Parole (konsep)
3. Structural Approach
This approach is closely related to the grammar-focused teaching. The Structuralists believed that language is formed from the smallest units of its sound system. Leonard Bloomfield in his book Language, published in 1933, he stated about structuralism. This model of grammar is still influential and worthy of detailed comment. Structuralists began with the premise that each language was unique and must be described in terms of its own individual patterning. Structuralism was text-based and only interested in language that had actually occurred.
Structuralism focuses on the level of language that examines how words combine into larger units. We shall study only three of these units – the phrase, the clause and the sentence.
There are five commonly occurring types of phrase in English:
noun phrases: e.g. the little dog, a young woman, etc.; adjective phrases: e.g.
Extremely old, etc.; verb phrases: e.g. might be closed, etc.; adverb phrases: e.g. very hard, every morning, etc.; preposition phrases: e.g. on foot, by plane, etc. They also study bigger units of words, clauses and sentences. In the implications, teachers attempt to ask students analyze the combining words.
For example:
C. Transformation
In the 1950s the school of linguistics thought known as transformational-generative grammar (TG) received wide acclaim through the works of Noam Chomsky. Chomsky postulated a syntactic base of language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence, and a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the phrase-structure to form more complex sentences. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that, after the addition of words and pronunciations, is identical to an actual sentence of a language. All languages have the same deep structure, but they differ from each other in surface structure because of the application of different rules for transformations, pronunciation, and word insertion. Another important distinction made in transformational-generative grammar is the difference between language competence (the subconscious control of a linguistic system) and language performance (the speaker's actual use of language). Although the first work done in transformational-generative grammar was syntactic, later studies have applied the theory to the phonological and semantic components of language.
A TG model has four main characteristics:
It must attempt to make explicit and generate an infinite set of sentences.
For example, that we have the rules:
S — NP + VP (sentence can be rewritten as noun phrase + verb phrase).
Since the model attempts to describe the ideal speaker-hearer’s linguistic knowledge and intuitions, it must be explicit.
The model must have three components: a phonological component, a syntactic component and a semantic component so that it parallels the speaker’s ability to associate noise and meaning.
It must be able to assign a structure to all sentences which would be accepted by a native speaker and ‘reject all sentences which would be rejected by a native speaker.
The example of transformation is as follow.
Other rule of transformation:
· Statement is changed to negative and interrogative, question tag
Example:
1. I go to school → I don’t go to school
2. It is hot, isn’t it?
Language in Communication
Language in Communication
A general introduction to linguistics and the study of language, intended particularly for beginning student and readers with no previous knowledge or training in the subject. There is first a general account of the nature of language and of the aims, methods and basic principles of linguistics theory.
Sir John Lyons is a fellow of British academy and an honorary member of linguistics society of America. He then introduces in turn each the main sub fields of linguistics, the sounds of language, grammar, semantics, language change, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, language and culture. One of his many publications is Language and Linguistics, an Introduction (1995)
Throughout the book, he emphasizes particularly those aspects of the discipline that seem fundamental and most likely to remain important. He stresses throughout the culture at least as much as biological context of human language to communicate each others, and show how the linguists concern connects productively with those of the traditional humanities the social science.
Communication terminologies:
1. Signal
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission
Step of communication:
Phonology → Morphology → Syntax → Semantics
There is communication if there is meaning (semantics)
According to John Lyon
1. A signal called communicative if the sender wants the receiver aware of what he/she receives.
2. A signal called informative if the sender doesn’t need the receiver aware of what he/she receives.
Dichotomy in Language
Dichotomy in Language
1. Fisis Versus Nomos (Naturalis Vs Konversi)
Physis has two principal meanings. It can refer to the cosmic order as a whole, or to the prime constituent(s) of that order: in these contexts it can often be translated as 'reality'. It can also refer to the intrinsic characteristics of a thing, especially a living thing, or to the thing's growth towards these characteristics. This dynamic aspect of physis can seem to give it a prescriptive as well as a descriptive force: it is good that things grow towards their mature state and achieving it constitutes their flourishing.
Nomos (plural: nomoi) can signify both the unwritten customs and the written laws of a society, and sometimes also an unwritten universal law of divine origin. Even when it refers to a custom, its force is always prescriptive: it indicates not merely a practice, but what the majority accepts as the right practice. However, increasing travel and historical researches heightened awareness of how particular nomoi differ between cultures and over time, and the consequent sense of their transience prompted growing speculation about their authority.
2. Anomaly Versus Analogy (Teratur Vs tidak Teratur)
The debate over the language of analogy and anomaly has been ongoing since the days of ancient Greece, and still there are followers. Supporting each opinion is based on the fact the reality of language that are both accurate and with an equally strong argument. This debate seems like a railway line that has no end of the meeting, each based on different poles.
Even if the debate analogy and this anomaly has developed since so long time but in fact the reality of this language is still relevant and current issues with the times. Issues analogy and anomaly is indeed related issues concerning the development of language. While language is still evolving, it issues an analogy and anomaly still always be attached to them.
One form of the development of Indonesian language is the form of absorption into Indonesian words derived from foreign languages influencers. The absorption of foreign words into the Indonesian language gave birth to linguistic problems that can be highlighted from the perspective of analogy and anomaly language.
Terminology Analogy and Anomalies
Analogies and anomalies as a terminology have been known since the time of Plato and Aristotle. The emergence of the terminology is because of the popular theory of analogy and anomaly at the time which each has supporters.
Group supporters say that the nature of this analogy has regularity; humans also have regularity, as well as with language. Analogy groups say that language is regular. As evidence in English the plural of boy to be boys, tables into tables, flower into flowers.
Regularity of language brings consequences to the formulation of a grammar. The analogy was adopted by Plato and Aristotle. The principle of this analogy is actually a transformation of logic and mathematical regularity in the language (Kaelan, 1998: 36).
Instead of anomalies argues that language is located in the form of irregular (irregular). As evidence them point out the plural of English child to be children, man became men in the daily reality of why there synonymy and homonymy. In this sense that language is intrinsically natural. The opinion of the anomaly is still used as one feature of language that language is essentially orbiter (Porera, 1986:46).
Analogy is the regularity of language, a unit of language can be said if analogical conformity or not to deviate with the conventions that have been enacted.
Anomaly is a deviation or lack of language disorder. A unit can be said anomalies if the unit does not conform or deviate with the conventions in force.
Summary can be prepared in simple language that the analogy is regularity, while the anomaly is the lack of language disorder or distortion of language.
In addition to this definition in the dictionary of linguistic terminology essay Kridalaksana analogies interpreted with different meanings, namely: "The process or result of the formation of language because of the influence of other patterns in the language
the difference this meaning is reasonable, because the dictionary intended meaning is linguistic meaning associated with linguistic. Whose the meaning of analogy is earlier is related to the philosophical meaning of language.
Therefore, as a basis for further descriptions is used then the meaning is the meaning of a philosophical rather than a linguistic meaning: namely, that analogy is the regularities of language, and the anomaly is a deviation or lack of language disorder.
3. Langue Versus Parole (konsep Vs ujaran)
A term introduced in de Saussure’s Cours de linguistique générale to distinguish between language (langue) as an abstract system of signs and rules, and the spoken word (parole) as the concrete realization of language as it is used. Langue is characterized as a static system of symbols with broad (social) value, due to the invariant and functional nature of its elements. Instances of parole are based on this system of langue and vary according to register, age, dialect, among other factors. The goal of structuralist linguistics is to research the systematic regularities of langue using data from parole (corpus), while parole itself can be researched in various disciplines, like phonetics, psychology, and physiology.
4. Deep Structure Versus Surface Structure (Konsep dari dalam Vs ucapan)
In 1957, Noam Chomsky published Syntactic Structures, in which he developed the idea that each sentence in a language has two levels of representation — a deep structure and a surface structure. The deep structure represented the core semantic relations of a sentence, and was mapped on to the surface structure (which followed the phonological form of the sentence very closely) via transformations. Chomsky believed there are considerable similarities between languages' deep structures, and that these structures reveal properties, common to all languages that surface structures conceal. However, this may not have been the central motivation for introducing deep structure. Transformations had been proposed prior to the development of deep structure as a means of increasing the mathematical and descriptive power of context-free grammars. Similarly, deep structure was devised largely for technical reasons relating to early semantic theory. Though transformations continue to be important in Chomsky's current theories, he has now abandoned the original notion of Deep Structure and Surface Structure. Initially, two additional levels of representation were introduced (LF — Logical Form, and PF — Phonetic Form), and then in the 1990s Chomsky sketched out a new program of research known as Minimalism, in which Deep Structure and Surface Structure no longer featured and PF and LF remained as the only levels of representation. To complicate the understanding of the development of Noam Chomsky's theories, the precise meanings of Deep Structure and Surface Structure have changed over time — by the 1970s, the two were normally referred to simply as D-Structure and S-Structure by Chomsky an linguists. In particular, the idea that the meaning of a sentence was determined by its Deep Structure (taken to its logical conclusions by the generative semanticists during the same period) was dropped for good by Chomsky an linguists when LF took over this role (previously, Chomsky and Ray Jack had begun to argue that meaning was determined by both Deep and Surface Structure).
5. Syntagmatic Versus Paradigmatic (Kaitan kesamping Vs Kaitan Kebawah)
Basic linguistic relationships which describe the complex structure of a language system. Paradigmatic relationships between linguistic elements can be established by use of the substitution test at the vertical level. Thus the initial consonants in beer, deer, peer form a paradigmatic class, as well as words such as today and tomorrow in the sentence: She will arrive today/tomorrow. Syntagmatic relationships are defined by the ability of elements to be combined horizontally (linearly), e.g. the relationship between She will arrive and today. De Saussure (1916) called paradigmatic relationships ‘associative’ relationships, because they represent the relationship between individual elements in specific environments with such elements in the memory which can potentially replace them. Paradigmatic relationships are based on the criteria of selection and distribution of linguistic elements, and are, for example, the basis for establishing the phoneme inventory of a language through the construction of minimal pairs, the replacement of sounds in an otherwise constant environment that leads to a difference in meaning. Elements which are related to each other paradigmatically can potentially occur in the same context but are mutually exclusive in an actual concrete context because they stand in opposition to one another. The distinction between paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships is relevant to all levels of description; Example:
| Paradigmatic | Syntagmatic |
| J | a | r | i |
| L | a | r | i |
| M | a | r | i |
| S | a | r | i |
6. Synchronic Versus Diachronic
(Mempelajari bahasa dalam satu decade Vs. Mempelajari bahasa dari masa ke masa)
· Synchrony (Mempelajari bahasa dalam satu decade)
Saussure proposed that language as a system of signs is studied as a complete system at any given point in time. Like chess, the important part of language is how pieces move and the positions of all pieces relative to one another. The shape of each piece is only important in that its potential can be recognized. A synchronic relationship is one where two similar things exist at the same time. Modern American English and British English have a synchronic relationship.
· Diachronic (Mempelajari bahasa dari masa ke masa)
Diachronic is the change in the meaning of words over time.
For example in the way that 'magic' meant 'good' in youth culture for a period during the 1980s (and, to a lesser extent, beyond).
It is thus the study of language in terms of how it visibly changes in usage. It is based in the dictionary meaning of words.
A diachronic relationship is where related things exist separated by time. 12th century English and 21st century English have a diachronic relationship.
7. Prescription Versus Description (Tradisonal Vs Modern)
In linguistics, prescription denotes normative practices on such aspects of language use as spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and syntax. It includes judgments on what usages are socially proper and politically correct. Its aims may be to establish a standard language, to teach what is perceived within a particular society to be correct forms of language, or to advise on effective communication. If usage preferences are conservative, prescription might (appear to) be resistant to language change; if the usage preferences are radical, prescription may produce neologisms.
Prescriptive approaches to language are often contrasted with descriptive linguistics, which observes and records how language is practiced. The basis of linguistic research is text (corpus) analysis and field studies; yet description includes each researcher’s observations of his and her (own) language usage. Despite apparent opposition, prescription and description (how language should be used, and how language is used) exist in a complementary dynamic tension of mutual linguistic support. The main aims of linguistic prescription are to define standardized language forms either generally (what is Standard English?) or for specific purposes (what style and register is appropriate in, for example, a legal brief?) and to formulate these in such a way as to make them easily taught or learned. Prescription can apply to most aspects of language: spelling, grammar, semantics, pronunciation and register. Most people would subscribe to the consensus that in all of these areas it is meaningful to describe some kinds of aberrations as incorrect or at least as inappropriate in particular contexts. Prescription aims to draw workable guidelines for language users seeking advice in such matters.
Phonetic and Phonology
Phonetics
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds (phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiologic status. Phonetics is a branch of phonology which studies about:
– how to produce sound
– how to pronounce sound
Organ of Speech
An overview of the vocal tract showing structures that is important in speech sound production and speech articulation
Robert Mannell
The sounds of English
Vowels
A vowel is a specific type of sound, characterized by a lack of full obstruction to the air flow. Vowels can be contrasted with consonants, where there is such an obstruction. As air comes out when you are speaking a consonant, there is a buildup of pressure as the air flow is constricted. When speaking a vowel, there is no built up pressure, the sound is simply shaped by the position of the tongue.
English has twelve vowel sounds. In the table above they are divided into seven short and five long vowels. An alternative way of organizing them is according to where (in the mouth) they are produced. This method allows us to describe them as front, central and back. We can qualify them further by how high the tongue and lower jaw are when we make these vowel sounds, and by whether our lips are rounded or spread, and finally by whether they are short or long. This scheme shows the following arrangement:
Front vowels
- /i:/ - cream, seen (long high front spread vowel)
- /ɪ/ - bit, silly (short high front spread vowel)
- /ɛ/ - bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/
- /æ/ - cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/
Central vowels
- /ɜ:/- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /ə:/.
- /ə/ - about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the neutral vowel sound - it never occurs in a stressed position.
- /ʌ/ - cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain.
Back vowels
- /u:/ - boob, glue (long high back rounded vowel)
- /ʊ/ - put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/
- /ɔ:/ - corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /o:/
- /ɒ/- dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/
- /ɑ:/ - hard, far (long low back spread vowel)
We can also arrange the vowels in a table or even depict them against a cross-section of the human mouth. Here is an example of a simple table:
| | Front | Central | Back |
| High | ɪ i: |
| ʊ u: |
| Mid | ɛ | ə ɜ: | ɔ: |
| Low | æ | ʌ | ɒ ɑ: |
Diphthongs
Diphthongs are types of vowels where two vowel sounds are connected in a continuous, gliding motion. They are often referred to as gliding vowels. Most languages have a number of diphthongs, although that number varies widely, from only one or two to fifteen or more.
| Diphthong |
| centring | closing |
| ending in ǝ | ending in i | ending in ʊ |
| sound | word | phonetic | sound | word | phonetic | sound | word | phonetic |
| iǝ | near | /niǝ(r)/ | ei | page | /peidӡ/ | ǝʊ | home | /hǝʊm/ |
| eǝ | hair | /heǝ(r)/ | ai | five | /faiv/ | aʊ | now | /naʊ/ |
| ʊǝ | pure | /pjʊǝ(r)/ | ͻi | join | /dӡͻi/ |
|
|
|
Triphthong
In phonetics, a triphthong is a monosyllabic vowel combination involving a quick but smooth movement of the articulator from one vowel quality to another that passes over a third. While "pure" vowels, or monophthongs, are said to have one target articulator position, diphthongs have two, and triphthongs three.
| No | sound | word | Phonetic |
| 1 | eiǝ | player | /pleiǝ(r)/ |
| 2 | aiǝ | fire | /faiǝ(r)/ |
| 3 | ͻiǝ | loyal | /lͻiǝ(r)/ |
| 4 | ǝʊǝ | mower | /mǝʊǝ(r)/ |
| 5 | aʊǝ | hour | / aʊǝ(r)/ |
Chart of English Consonant Phonemes
|
| Place of Articulation |
| Manner of Articulation |
| Bilabial | Labiodental | Dental | Alveolar | Palato-Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glotal |
| Plosive | p b |
|
| t d |
|
| k g |
|
| Fricative |
| f v | θ ð | s z | ʃ ӡ |
|
| h |
| Affricative |
|
|
|
| tʃ dӡ |
|
|
|
| Nasal | m |
|
| n |
|
| ɳ |
|
| Lateral |
|
|
| l |
|
|
|
|
| Approximant | w |
|
|
| r | j |
|
|
Note : voiced (bergetar saat diucapkan: b, d, g, v, ð, z, ӡ, dӡ)
Voiceless (tidak bergetar saat diucapkan )
The other hand, phonology is concerned with abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds.
Definition: Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages. Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
Here is an illustration that shows the place of phonology in an interacting hierarchy of levels in linguistics:
| Comparison: Phonology and phonetics |
| Phonetics … | Phonology … |
| Is the basis for phonological analysis? | Is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse, and orthography design? |
| Analyzes the production of all human speech sounds, regardless of language. | Analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by - determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and
- Explaining how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.
|
|
|
Phonemes
Phonemes include all significant differences of sound, including features of voicing, place and manner of articulation, accents, and secondary features of nasalization and labialization. Whereas phonetics refers to the study of the production, perception, and physical nature of speech sounds.
Definition Phonemes
1. Trask (1996: 264) says: phoneme is the smallest unit which can make a difference in meaning’….
2. Hayman (1975: 59) defines the phoneme as ‘a minimal unit of sound capable of distinguishing words of different meanings. Thus, both /t/ and /d/ are phonemes in English because they are able to make a meaning difference, as in the word ‘ten’ and ‘den’.
3. Gleason (1955: 261) defines the phoneme as "a class of sounds which: (1) they are phonetically similar and (2) show certain characteristic patterns of distribution in the language or dialect under consideration”.
An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. We know that there are two phonemes /f/ and /v/ in English because they are the only basis of the contrast in meaning between the forms fat and vat, or fine and vine. This contrastive property is the basic operational test for determining the phonemes which exist in a language.
If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example: /p/ can be characterized as [-voice, +bilabial, +stop] and /k/ as [-voice, +velar, +stop]. Since these two sounds share some features, they are sometimes described as members of a natural class of sounds.
The prediction would be that sounds which have features in common would behave phonologically in some similar ways. A sound which does not share those features would be expected to behave differently. For example, /v/ has the features [+voice, +labiodentals, +fricative] and so cannot be in the same ‘natural class’ as /p/ and /k/.
Although other factors will be involved, this feature-analysis could lead us to suspect that there may be a good phonological reason why words beginning with /pl-/ and /kl-/ are common in English, but words beginning /vl-/ are not.
Suprasegmentals
In written English we use punctuation to signal some things like emphasis, and the speed with which we want our readers to move at certain points. In spoken English we use sounds in ways that do not apply to individual segments but to stretches of spoken discourse from words to phrases, clauses and sentences. Such effects are described as non-segmental or suprasegmental - or, using the adjective in a plural nominal (noun) form, simply suprasegmentals.
Among these effects are such things as stress, intonation, tempo and rhythm - which collectively are known as prosodic features. Other effects arise from altering the quality of the voice, making it breathy or husky and changing what is sometimes called the timbre - and these are paralinguistic features. Both of these kinds of effect may signal meaning. But they do not do so consistently from one language to another, and this can cause confusion to students learning a second language.
Prosodic features
· Stress or loudness - increasing volume is a simple way of giving emphasis, and this is a crude measure of stress. But it is usually combined with other things like changes in tone and tempo. We use stress to convey some kinds of meaning (semantic and pragmatic) such as urgency or anger or for such things as imperatives.
· Intonation - you may be familiar in a loose sense with the notion of tone of voice. We use varying levels of pitch in sequences (contours or tunes) to convey particular meanings. Falling and rising intonation in English may signal a difference between statement and question. Younger speakers of English may use rising (question) intonation without intending to make the utterance a question.
· Tempo - we speak more or less quickly for many different reasons and purposes. Occasionally it may be that we are adapting our speech to the time we have in which to utter it (as, for example, in a horse-racing commentary). But mostly tempo reflects some kinds of meaning or attitude - so we give a truthful answer to a question, but do so rapidly to convey our distraction or irritation.
· Rhythm - patterns of stress, tempo and pitch together create a rhythm. Some kinds of formal and repetitive rhythm are familiar from music, rap, poetry and even chants of soccer fans. But all speech has rhythm - it is just that in spontaneous utterances we are less likely to hear regular or repeating patterns.
Allophone
· An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. · A predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme.
For example, the aspirated t of top, the unaspirated t of stop, and the tt (pronounced as a flap) of batter are allophones of the English phoneme /t/.
